Lithium-ion batteries have revolutionized consumer electronics and motor vehicles and have contributed to the enhancement of renewable energy storage. These batteries are used globally every day to power laptops, cell phones, power tools, e-bikes, hoverboards and portable devices – such as forklifts and pallet jacks. Today in China, there are more than 350 million electric motorcycles and e-bikes in use, representing the single largest sector of motor vehicles.

Why have lithium-ion batteries become so popular? They have a higher power density than traditional batteries. They are inexpensive to produce, charge quickly, and hold a charge for a longer period of time. And they have a longer life – able to go through up to 1,000 charging cycles.

As widespread as their use is, lithium-ion batteries have a very short history. The first commercially available battery was introduced in the Sony Handi-Cam in 1991 and the first automotive battery was the Tesla Roadster in 2008. Yet the concept of a lithium-ion battery nearly ended in the 1980s when the world had no interest in a rechargeable battery

In this edition of HETI Horizons, we will explore the composition and structure of lithium-ion batteries and how they should be handled to prevent uncontrolled fires that burn intensely and at very high temperatures. Most suburban and rural fire departments are poorly trained or equipped to fight lithium battery fires.

How Do Lithium-Ion Batteries Work?

Rechargeable batteries are composed of an anode and a cathode. Lithium-ion batteries store a lithium electrolyte salt solution and two current collectors (positive and negative). When the battery is discharging, providing current, the anode releases lithium ions which travel through the electrolyte to the cathode. When charging, the opposite happens.

Why Are Lithium-Ion Batteries Dangerous

Lithium-ion batteries pose fire and explosion hazards when they are misused or damaged. The electrolyte-rich fluid, which allows the battery to store a lot of energy, is both volatile and flammable. Most fires result from cell failure when exposed to high temperatures. When one cell fails and ignites, it causes a condition known as thermal runaway – where all cells ignite until all of the fuel is consumed.

The heat from a battery fire can reach temperatures as high as 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit in a matter of seconds – resulting in significant structural damage when the fire is in an enclosed space. A lithium-ion battery fire can cause the release of toxic chemicals such as hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride. In an uncontrolled battery failure, the resulting fire may be hard to contain and can easily hold enough heat to reignite. The Consumer Product Safety Commission reported that during the five-year period of 2017-2022 there were more than 25,000 overheating or fire incidents involving over 400 types of lithium batteries.

The mechanisms that cause, and the consequences of, battery failure are not well understood. Studies indicate that 80% of fires are caused by electrical damage – typically a result of cell failure, overcharging, and mismatched batteries/chargers sold online as replacements. About 10% stem from physical damage – such as dropping or striking a battery. The remaining fires result from manufacturing defect.

Fighting a fire involving a lithium-ion battery is difficult. Due to the elevated temperature of these fires, the use of a portable fire extinguisher is typically not effective. The best response is to contact the fire department and let them know the fire involves a device with a lithium-ion battery. Since the battery does not contain lithium metal, explosion hazard is not the primary risk. The key is to lower the temperature at the source of the fire as quickly as possible with a water spray. This can cool the battery to help prevent the spread of the fire but will not extinguish the fire until the fuel is consumed. There are specialized products such as F-500 which forms a thin layer around the fuel molecules preventing oxygen from reaching the fuel. F-500 portable extinguishers are commercially available for Class D fires, which may be a consideration for commercial properties that have portable devices with lithium-ion batteries. However, at this point, fire departments are unlikely to carry this equipment on their vehicles.

Lithium-Ion Battery Safety

Correct storage and use of lithium-ion batteries are very important. Batteries should be protected from extremes in temperature during charging, since overcharging can create excessive heat inside a battery. It is important to use a quality charger recommended by the equipment manufacturer – designed to control the amount of charge to go into a battery cell and to shut off the charger when fully charged. Charging when a building is not occupied is not recommended unless there is a timer on the circuit. Chargers purchased online that are not labeled or certified are not recommended.

Underwriters Laboratories is proposing a standard, UL1487, for battery containment enclosures – designed to limit fire spread in the event of a cell failure. Other applicable standards include UL 2272 “Systems for Personal E-Mobility Devices” and UL2849 “Standard for Safety for Electrical Systems on E-Bikes”. There are also lithium-ion battery management systems that can be utilized to track battery temperature, cell voltage and cell charge. Heat, smoke, swelling or popping sounds may be early warning signs of impending cell failure – indicating the device should be isolated, if possible, taking care to protect the safety of occupants.

HETI: Helping Bring Safe Battery Management to the Workplace

HETI can provide training on lithium-ion battery safety, assist with the selection of portable fire extinguishers, set up training programs for device management, and offer guidance on proper disposal of end-of-life batteries and chargers.

For further information on HETI’s environmental health & safety services, please contact us.
Scott Herzog, CIH and Theresa Butziger, LPG

Flying cars, jet packs and robot servants. Such fanciful ideas and technologies, only dreamed about many years ago, are now on the horizon. Self-driving cars, passenger drones and Artificial Intelligence (AI) are now all a reality. But what are the risks?

The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) recently published a fact sheet entitled “Emerging Risks and Technologies”.1 In this document, DHS lists things like “Intelligence Swarms”, “Synthetic Pandemics”, and “Quantum Computing” as potential threats that the average person probably has not heard much about yet.

Emerging Threats

According to DHS, rapid technological changes occurring today present new challenges to DHS’s ability to keep up with the ever-changing threat environment.1 Some of these threats are already creating hazards in the workplace. According to LinkedIn 2, emerging technologies offer many potential benefits, but they also pose some new health and safety risks.

Here are a few examples of emerging technologies and their associated risk to workers and the general public:

Virtual, augmented, and mixed reality (VR, AR, and MR): These technologies can create immersive experiences that can be used for training, education, and entertainment. However, there is a risk of users becoming disoriented or experiencing motion sickness. Additionally, VR headsets can block users’ vision, which could lead to accidents if they are not used safely.

Driverless cars: These vehicles, which are still under development, have the potential to reduce traffic accidents and improve safety. However, they pose risks of malfunction or hacking. Additionally, driverless cars could create new challenges for pedestrians and cyclists.

Manufacturing and future materials: New materials are being developed for use in manufacturing. Some of these materials, such as carbon nanotubes and graphene, may be toxic or pose other health risks.

Next-generation services: Artificial Intelligence and other technologies are being used to improve the efficiency and productivity of financial and professional services. However, there is a risk of job displacement and increased stress on workers. Additionally, there are concerns about the privacy and security of personal data.

Quantum technologies: Quantum technologies have the potential to revolutionize many industries. However, some of these, such as quantum computers, could be used to develop new weapons or break encryption codes.

Robots for a safer world: Robots can be used to perform dangerous or repetitive tasks. However, there is a risk of their malfunctioning or being hacked. Additionally, there are concerns about the impact of automation on jobs and society. 2

AI Answers Itself

ChatGPT 3 is a language processing tool driven by AI that allows us to have human-like conversations with an AI “chatbot”. The AI model can answer questions and process common tasks like composing essays, emails, code, and articles. Journalists, business analysts, and academics have been experimenting with the subscription tool to gain perspective and insight on subjects within their field.

In 2023 OpenAI asked its AI processor to answer the following question with respect to occupational risk management: “What are the main workplace risks of the next 10 years?” ChatGPT answered:

Automation: The increasing automation of jobs could lead to job displacement and unemployment.
Cybersecurity: With more companies moving towards digitalization, data breaches and cyber attacks on workers’ personal information and company data are on the rise.
Mental Health: The stress of work, long hours, and high-performance expectations may cause mental health issues among workers – leading to decreased productivity and job satisfaction.
Remote Work: The increasing trend of remote work could lead to social isolation in workers, lack of work-life balance, and ergonomic issues.
Climate Change: Workers may experience health and safety risks due to increasingly frequent and severe weather events, or the need to work in hazardous or extreme weather conditions.
Workplace Harassment: Despite ongoing efforts to prevent and combat workplace harassment, it remains an ongoing risk to employees.
Aging Workforce: As the global population ages, companies may face a shortage of experienced workers, and demand for customized work arrangements and accommodation.

Future Health and Safety Risks

As put forth by ChatGPT, workplace accidents and illness from exposure to hazardous materials, machinery, or environmental hazards could continue to pose a threat to workers’ health and safety. Ironically these AI-based chatbots may also have a role in assisting organizations to predict and manage future occupational risks.3

Conclusion

Is all of this concerning, or just another futuristic idea – this time created by AI itself? At least some, including Forbes 4, believe that utilizing the tech savviness of the Gen Z workforce will help reduce the mental health risks since these workers better embrace new technologies. However, ensuring a balance in traditional jobs will still be a challenge.

Additional Resources from HETI

HETI’s industrial hygiene and safety professionals are available to assist clients with a variety of services to help develop and implement programs that address the health & safety challenges of emerging technologies. Using the latest methods and technology to monitor workplace hazards, we can evaluate and provide recommendations for enhancing safety in the workplace. HETI can help provide answers and solutions to the risks new technology may present.

For further information on HETI’s environmental health & safety services, please contact us.
Mark Ostapczuk, CIH, CSP
Director – Life Sciences Practice
Phone: 978.263.4044
development@hetiservices.com

References:
1 Emerging Risks and Technologies, Homeland Security, www.dhs.gov/science-and-technology/publication/emerging-risks-and technologies-fact-sheet
2 Health and Safety Risks of Emerging Technologies, LinkedIn, www.linkedin.com/pulse/health-safety-risks- emerging-technologies-jofox
3 Emerging Tech Safety – Guidance for the 21st Century Workplace, OpenAI released ChatGPT, https://emergingtechsafety.com
4 “Winning Over Gen Z: Tech Strategies to Attract, Train and Retain the Emerging Workforce”, Forbes, August 16, 2024

On October 10, 2024, a chemical leak occurred at the PEMEX Deer Park Refinery where two people died and about 35 others were injured due to the release of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S). This incident prompted a city-wide shelter-in-place; and later that day the City of Deer Park reassured the public via social media: “We are aware of the odor but there is no hazard to the community.”

This raises an important question: How can it be deemed safe to smell a gas in certain circumstances, particularly when fatalities had occurred that day due to that exact gas? Because during industrial incidents, like the chemical leak at the PEMEX Deer Park Refinery, H₂S concentrations in areas accessible to the public are typically diluted to levels well below hazardous thresholds. H₂S toxicity is primarily due to its ability to interfere with cellular respiration by inhibiting cytochrome oxidase enzymes, which are critical for energy production in cells. At low levels, the inhibition of mitochondrial enzymes is reversible; and once H₂S is cleared by human metabolism, cellular respiration and energy production return to normal.

Humans can detect H₂S at concentrations as low as 0.00047 ppm (parts per million) or 0.47 ppb (parts per billion) – which is often described as having a “rotten egg” smell – well below levels that pose a health risk. This sensitivity allows individuals to notice the gas even when it is present in concentrations far too low to cause harm. Exposure to levels exceeding 300 ppm can cause unconsciousness and death within minutes, due to respiratory failure. Paradoxically for human safety at concentrations exceeding approximately 100-150 ppm, H₂S rapidly desensitizes the olfactory nerves, leading to a loss of the ability to smell the gas even at toxic concentrations. Workers thus may unknowingly remain in a hazardous environment, believing that the gas leak stopped and the smell dissipated into the air – increasing their risk of severe health effects, including respiratory failure, unconsciousness, or death.

The sense of smell plays a critical role in our daily lives and in safety and health, particularly in industrial and occupational environments where hazardous chemicals are present. In this edition of HETI Horizons, we explore the fascinating intricacies of olfactory perception, its implications – from normal function (normosmia) to altered conditions (e.g., anosmia and parosmia), as well as factors influencing odor thresholds.

What Are Odor Thresholds?

Odor thresholds refer to the minimum concentration of a substance in air that is detectable by the human nose. This is typically divided into two categories:

• Detection Threshold: The lowest concentration at which a person can detect an odor but cannot
  identify it.
• Recognition Threshold: The concentration at which an odor is recognizable and can be associated with a particular substance.

In occupational safety, detection thresholds might alert someone to the presence of a chemical (e.g., “I smell something”), while recognition thresholds are critical for identifying specific hazards (e.g., “This smells like hydrogen sulfide, a toxic gas”). These thresholds vary significantly among individuals due to a range of physiological and environmental factors.

Olfactory Disorders: From Anosmia to Phantosmia

The sense of smell is a dynamic and complex system, and several disorders can impact it:

• Normosmia: Normal smell perception. For example, a worker in a chemical plant detects a faint odor
  of natural gas, triggering immediate action to check for leaks. The normal sense of smell allows
  identification of potential hazards before they become critical.
• Anosmia: Complete loss of smell, often observed in viral infections such as COVID-19. For example, a
  lab technician who has lost their sense of smell due to COVID-19 cannot detect a gas leak from a
  malfunctioning cylinder – potentially putting themselves and colleagues at risk. This highlights the need
  for backup safety measures like gas detectors.
• Hyposmia: Reduced sensitivity to odors. For example, a painter working with
  solvents may only faintly notice the strong chemical odors in the workspace, leading
  to prolonged exposure without realizing the potential hazard. This can result in
  overexposure to harmful fumes.
• Hyperosmia: Heightened sensitivity to smells. For example, an office worker
  may find the smell of cleaning products in a freshly sanitized office overwhelmingly
  strong – causing discomfort, nausea, or headaches. This could necessitate
  accommodations, such as using low-odor cleaning agents.
• Parosmia: Distorted smell perception, often making pleasant odors seem unpleasant. For example, a
  cleaning staff member perceives the pleasant smell of lemon-scented cleaning solutions as sour or
  chemical-like after recovering from an illness – causing discomfort during their tasks.
• Phantosmia: The perception of odors that are not present. For example, a factory worker suddenly
  perceives the smell of burning rubber during their shift, even though there are no fires or machinery
  issues. This could cause unnecessary panic or misdirected safety checks – affecting workflow
  efficiency.

The COVID-19 pandemic brought widespread attention to these disorders, as many affected individuals reported anosmia or parosmia, with some experiencing prolonged recovery periods. Such conditions may affect workplace safety, as workers may fail to detect harmful chemical odors.

Individual Variability in Odor Perception

A wide range of factors influence odor thresholds, including:

• Gender: Women often exhibit greater sensitivity to odors than men.
• Age: Olfactory sensitivity declines with age, impacting recognition thresholds.
• Smoking: Long-term smoking damages olfactory receptors, reducing smell
  perception.
• Pregnancy: Hormonal changes can heighten sensitivity to certain odors.

Individual variability underscores the importance of tailored safety protocols in workplaces.
New technologies in gas detection provide more sensitive, real-time monitoring of odor-causing substances like hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These devices can now detect concentrations far below regulatory thresholds, improving early warning systems. Also, personal monitoring devices, often integrated with wireless systems, allow workers to receive alerts when odor thresholds are exceeded – reducing reliance on human olfactory perception, which can be impaired by conditions like anosmia or olfactory fatigue.

HETI…Here to Help

HETI can assist in understanding the complexities of odor thresholds and the various factors that influence them. By leveraging our expertise, we can help clients implement enhanced safety measures, safeguard their workforce, and promote a healthier and more secure workplace environment. HETI can provide tailored recommendations for air quality monitoring systems – including gas detectors and alarm thresholds calibrated to detect hazardous substances before they pose a risk. We can also conduct workshops to educate workers about the importance of odor perception in safety – including conditions like olfactory fatigue, hyposmia, and anosmia, which can impact hazard detection.

To find out more about this and other HETI industrial hygiene services,
please contact us.
Daniel Farcas, PhD, CIH, CSP, CHMM
Senior Industrial Hygienist

Managing large, complex environmental/pollution claims can be extremely challenging. Whether it’s a tanker truck roll-over, chemical plant fire, or train derailment, effective management of the response and cleanup can make a substantial impact on the outcome of the loss. This edition of HETI Horizons provides an overview of specific methods and practices that can be employed to minimize liabilities, control costs, and ensure correct application of the policy.

Initial Response

Whenever an environmental emergency occurs, swift and coordinated action is crucial. Immediate mobilization of qualified representatives ensures that carriers and insured parties have the needed support on-site when it’s needed most. This is especially critical within the first 48 hours, as emergency response efforts can be extremely dynamic and costly. The goal is to establish a consistent presence, to become an advocate of the insured, and to assist with facilitating efficient communications and clear lines of responsibility. Early reporting from an “on the ground” perspective is essential to assist the insurance carrier in determining policy applicability, assessing coverage, and gaining knowledge of the overall risks associated with the loss. Understanding the risk environment, the response effort, and the regulatory expectations will guide the ability to assist the insured in streamlining the response effort – assuring the most efficient, cost effective operation possible.

Risk Evaluation

Understanding the insured’s overall risks is fundamental. A comprehensive risk evaluation should be performed immediately following the event to identify and assess on-site and off-site impacts, affected third parties, potential business interruption impact, and regulatory liability. It is also important to determine whether other insurance policies, such as property or general liability, may apply to the claim and assess the cooperation levels with other carriers. Proper subrogation and risk transfer evaluation, including the preservation of evidence and review of contracts, are essential to minimizing exposure.

Effort Optimization

Maintaining momentum throughout the claims process requires ongoing communication. Establishing expectations on day one and adhering to an operational structure throughout the remediation process are vital. Regular follow-ups and updates prevent surprises and keep the claim on track. Developing relationships with emergency response contractors, regulators and other carriers will assist in streamlining the process ensuring readiness and assuring that an efficient and cost-effective posture is maintained. Early discussions between the insured, brokers, and claims adjusters help clarify documentation requirements and potential red flags.

Establishing an organized operational structure for all phases of response and remediation efforts is critical to manage resources, maintain clear lines of technical responsibilities, and accurately segregate on-site activity among funding sources. Additionally, on-site monitoring ensures that efforts remain cost-effective and aligned with expectations. Regular communications with the insured and remedial contractors should encourage efficiencies – such as utilization of alternative methodologies for waste management, treatment, and disposal.

Cost Allocation

Cost and expense allocation is another critical component in the claim management process. Typically, not all activity taking place on-site is considered applicable to a single policy. For example, decommissioning mechanical components, de-inventory of unaffected products, and demolition of structures may not be covered by an environmental policy. Therefore, daily activity reports and other documentation are necessary for the defensible allocation of applicable costs.

Contractors should be required to submit detailed invoices that can be clearly correlated with daily activity reports, field notes, and waste inventory. The assessment of charges should also include verifying their necessity, reasonableness, and adherence to industry standards.

Proper cost allocation and accurate documentation often yields significant cost reductions by parsing reasonable and necessary costs associated with activity applicable to the policy. An Invoice Evaluation Report is an invaluable tool to illustrate the effectiveness of on-site monitoring, documentation and collaboration throughout the process, and present costs that have been determined to be reasonable, necessary and applicable to the policy.

By employing these strategies, organizations can effectively manage environmental claims, control costs, and minimize liabilities – ensuring a balanced approach to environmental emergency response and remediation claims.

Services from HETI

HETI’s staff possesses extensive experience in responding to and managing environmental incident response and remediation projects on behalf of dozens of insurance carriers – representing their interests and, indirectly, those of their clients. HETI has subsequently helped its customers in significantly reducing overall risk, both short-term and long-term, as well as assisted in significant cost savings throughout the life of environmental/pollution claims.

To find out more about HETI’s emergency response, remediation,
and claim support services, please contact us.
James Rothrock
Senior Geologist/Senior Environmental Scientist
Phone: 978.263.4044
development@hetiservices.com

With the first generation of photovoltaic cells nearing their useful life (typically 25 to 30 years), the volume of solar panel (photovoltaic cell) waste has increased in the last few years. This trend will continue. Because of the construction of solar panels, a certain amount of processing is required before the panel components can be recycled. With the projected growth of solar technologies, raw material availability could be constrained. So, solar panel recycling will be increasingly important.

Solar Panel Technologies

A typical solar panel uses silicon crystals as a semi-conductor which converts light into electricity. The surface of each crystalline photovoltaic module – often a silicon crystal – is crisscrossed by thin strips of metal (silver and others) which move electricity into the panel’s copper wiring. The solar cells are encapsulated in a protective transparent barrier called EVA (ethylene-vinyl acetate) which is inexpensive and has good optical properties. A layer of glass is placed on top and a plastic backsheet – commonly polyethylene terephthalate (PET) – goes on the bottom. These encapsulating layers provide protection for the solar cells from harsh environments. The entire assembly is contained in an aluminum frame. Separation of the solar panel components can be a challenging process – contributing to the difficulties and costs in their recycling.

Of the three types of solar panels commonly found today: monocrystalline is the most efficient; polycrystalline the cheapest; and thin-film panels the most portable.

First-generation solar panels are crystalline silicon (c-Si) panels, which account for approximately 95% of all solar panels produced to date. Because silicon is readily available, c-Si panels are more affordable and highly efficient. The two types of c-Si panels are: monocrystalline, which can reach efficiencies of more than 20%; and polycrystalline, which tends to be below 20% efficient.

A monocrystalline solar panel is made from single crystal solar cells or “wafers.” Monocrystalline wafers are created from a single silicon crystal formed into a cylindrical silicon ingot. A monocrystalline cell’s composition provides more room for the electrons to move – making it more efficient. However, during the manufacturing of monocrystalline panels, the process of solidification of silicon must be controlled very carefully – increasing production costs. So, while monocrystalline solar cells tend to be more efficient than polycrystalline cells, their costs are higher.

Polycrystalline silicon solar panels – also known as “multi-crystalline” or many-crystals – consist of wafers constructed by melting many silicon fragments together into square molds. The resulting wafers are then cut into individual cells. Because the manufacturing process is much simpler, compared to monocrystalline panels, these panels tend to be less expensive.

Thin-film solar cell (TFSC) panels consist of a single or multiple layers of photovoltaic elements on top of a surface comprised of a variety of glass, plastic, or metal. Compared to first-generation c-Si panels, TFSCs require less semiconductor material. TFSCs use strongly light-absorbing materials – such as cadmium telluride, copper indium gallium selenide, amorphous silicon, and gallium arsenide. Because they are less affected by higher temperatures, TFSCs have lower thermal photovoltaic losses than c-Si panels; but they tend to be more expensive. Currently, TFSC panels have a small share of the solar panel market and are primarily used in mobile applications.

Regulatory Environment

When discarded, solar panels are classified as solid waste and fall under existing federal solid and hazardous waste regulations.

Some solar panels may contain enough metals (e.g., lead) to meet the definition of hazardous waste under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). In such cases, the generator may use their own knowledge or may determine if the solar panels are hazardous waste by performing appropriate testing, such as toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP).

Solar panels can be recycled using the transfer-based exclusion if the state in which the solar panel waste is generated and recycled has adopted the 2015 or 2018 Definition of Solid Waste Rule. However, the requirements found in Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Regulation 40 CFR, Section 261.4(a)(24) must be followed.

Solar panels are not a federal universal waste and cannot be managed as such. However, some states, such as California and Hawaii, have added solar panels as state-only universal waste. In part in response to a petition submitted by a broad coalition of industry associations to regulate solar panels as universal waste and to improve management and recycling of solar panels, EPA is drafting streamlined solar panel end-of-life management requirements – likely to be published in the summer of 2025 – by adding hazardous waste solar panels to the universal waste regulations (CFR 40 Part 273). This should improve management of all solar panel waste and encourage recycling.

Services from HETI

HETI’s staff continually reviews new and proposed changes to regulations and standards to make sure we have current knowledge of compliance and environmental health & safety (EHS) issues. We have extensive experience in supporting our clients though a comprehensive range of regulatory and other services. So, whether there is a need for waste management evaluation, permitting, or other regulatory support, HETI’s professionals are ready to help.

To find out more about HETI’s EHS and regulatory support services, please contact us.
Carmelo Blazekovic
Senior Geologist/Senior Environmental Scientist