More precious than emeralds? A metal that is lighter than aluminum and stronger than steel, beryllium is a critical material of vital importance to a plethora of modern technologies.
While studying the chemical composition of emeralds in 1798, French chemist Louis Nicolas Vauquelin discovered the element beryllium. The metal was first isolated in 1828, revealing the interesting and useful properties of the silver-grey material. Beryllium is never found in its metallic elemental form in nature.
Beryllium’s special position on the periodic table as the lightest alkaline earth metal is responsible for its many excellent properties. It is about one-quarter the weight of steel with 50% greater tensile strength – making it an ideal material for use in aerospace and defense. Beryllium is so important to the military, it is the only metal designated as “critical and strategic” by the U.S. Department of Defense.
Beryllium is non-sparking and non-magnetic, making beryllium copper alloy tools the standard for the oil and gas industry. Since it absorbs very little X-rays, beryllium has proven an excellent material for X-ray windows. About 75% of beryllium produced is used in the manufacture of beryllium-containing alloys. Its low density, extreme strength, high thermal conductivity and high melting point, produce premium alloys that are used for many applications across many industries – including the nuclear industry, satellites, missiles, radiography and even your cell phone.
From a single mine in Delta, Utah, the United States leads the world in beryllium mining and exports – accounting for more than 70% of global production. Besides the U.S., only China and Kazakhstan produce commercial beryllium.
Exposure and Toxicity
Occupational exposure to beryllium is very hazardous. First reported in the 1940s, Chronic Beryllium Disease (CBD or Berylliosis) is a progressive lung disease caused by a delayed-type, exaggerated immune response to beryllium in previously sensitized individuals. CBD is characterized by granulomas, scarring, and a fibrotic thickening of deep lung tissues. Granulomas may develop in other body tissue as well. CBD symptoms include dry coughing, fatigue, weight loss, chest pain, and increasing shortness of breath…and may be fatal. Beryllium is a known carcinogen and is classified as: an A-1 Confirmed Human Carcinogen by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists; Group 1 – Carcinogenic to Humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer; and Group B – Probable Human Carcinogen by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The reports of beryllium-related cancers have been limited to lung cancer.
The most severe human exposures are occupational and may result in the development of several diseases. Acute Beryllium Disease (ABD) is a rapid onset disease consistent with chemical pneumonia. ABD is caused by inhalation of very high concentrations of beryllium, roughly 500 times the current Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL). ABD has become rare as a result of modern industrial hygiene practices and controls.
Inhalation or dermal exposure to beryllium may activate the body’s immune system defenses. While there are no clinical symptoms, Beryllium Sensitization is a condition that can be detected with the Beryllium Lymphocyte Proliferation Test. Beryllium sensitization in a worker is important because, once sensitized, he/she may develop CBD after subsequently inhaling beryllium. Employers with sensitized workers must offer those employees a physical examination by a licensed physician every two years.
EHS Regulations in the United States
Due to their toxic properties, beryllium and beryllium compounds are regulated by the USEPA, the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) and OSHA. USEPA regulates the concentration of beryllium in drinking water in public systems through the Safe Drinking Water Act. The National Primary Drinking Water Regulations contain a Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for beryllium of 0.004 mg/liter.
In 1949, prior to the establishment of the USEPA, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) had determined that beryllium was a toxic material and presented a threat to the air quality in communities local to beryllium refiners that held AEC contracts. In response to this health threat, the AEC set a limit for beryllium concentrations in community ambient air of 0.01 micrograms per cubic meter of air (µg/m3). In 1973, by authority of the Clean Air Act, USEPA designated beryllium as a hazardous air pollutant and adopted the 0.01 µg/m3 limit for ambient air. The standard covers extraction plants, foundries, ceramic manufacturing plants, and machine shops processing beryllium. These facilities must conduct emissions testing and most sources are limited to emissions of not more than 10 mg per day.
While beryllium and beryllium-containing products are not considered hazardous waste by USEPA, under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), spent beryllium powder is designated as a hazardous waste.
USDOT regulates the transport, packaging and handling of beryllium and certain beryllium compounds as hazardous substances with a reporting quantity of ten pounds for beryllium metal and dust and one pound for beryllium chloride, beryllium nitrate and beryllium fluoride.
Beryllium received considerable attention after OSHA published a final rule for general industry (29 CFR 1910.1024) on May 20, 2017. The new rule greatly reduced the previous OSHA PEL of 2.0 µg/m3 to 0.2 µg/m3. It also established a 15-minute Short Term Exposure Limit of 2.0 µg/m3 and an Action Level of 0.1 µg/m3, which triggers medical surveillance for affected workers. Enforcement of the rule has been phased in since publication with only the provisions for engineering controls still pending – with an anticipated enforcement date of March 10, 2020. OSHA has proposed revisions to the final rule for the shipyard industry (29 CFR 1915.1024) and construction industry (29 CFR 1926.1124) and is currently only enforcing the PEL in these industries.
OSHA’s effort to revise the beryllium standard began in 2002 and gained momentum from an exceptional instance when representatives from industry and labor unions submitted a joint “model rule” in 2012. The new beryllium standard is similar to other OSHA standards and has received revisions to the sections for exposure assessment, methods of compliance, personal protective equipment, hygiene areas and practices, housekeeping, hazard communication, medical surveillance and record keeping.
Properties with historic beryllium usage may have residual beryllium contamination on surfaces and structural building elements. These properties include power generation facilities, metal processing facilities, metal workshops, or any processes that handled alloys and materials with a beryllium content above 0.1%.
Beryllium Compliance Services…from HETI
HETI’s Certified Industrial Hygienists and environmental professionals are available to assist clients comply with the array of beryllium regulations. Whether the need is for written programs, training, workplace exposure assessments, or simply addressing questions on compliance, we are here to help.